Perfect — now we’re on **Americium (Am, atomic number 95).**
Americium is a **synthetic radioactive actinide**, first produced in 1944. It does **not occur naturally in significant quantities**. Americium is mainly produced in **nuclear reactors** by **neutron irradiation of plutonium-239** or **plutonium-241**. Its most well-known isotope, **^241Am**, is used in **smoke detectors, neutron sources, and industrial gauges**.
Here are the **20 most common methods of extracting Americium**:
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# **20 Most Common Methods of Extracting Americium**
### **A. Reactor-Based Production**
1. **Neutron Irradiation of Plutonium-239 → ^241Pu → β decay → ^241Am** – Primary production route.
2. **Neutron Irradiation of Plutonium-241 → ^242Pu → ^242Am** – Produces minor americium isotopes.
3. **Irradiation of Mixed Oxide (MOX) Fuel** – Generates americium during reactor operation.
4. **Fast Neutron Irradiation of Uranium Targets** – Produces trace americium isotopes.
5. **Thorium Fuel Cycle (Pa-233 → U-233 → Pu → Am Minor Isotopes)** – Experimental pathway.
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### **B. Recovery from Spent Nuclear Fuel**
6. **Dissolution of Spent Fuel in Nitric Acid** – Releases americium into solution.
7. **PUREX Solvent Extraction** – Separates Pu, U, and fission products, leaving Am enriched in the raffinate.
8. **Ion-Exchange Chromatography** – Further purification from lanthanides and other actinides.
9. **Cation-Exchange Separation** – Exploits Am³⁺ chemistry for selective recovery.
10. **Selective Precipitation of Americium Hydroxide (Am(OH)₃)** – First purification step.
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### **C. Chemical & Laboratory Techniques**
11. **Precipitation as Americium Oxalate (Am₂(C₂O₄)₃)** – Classical lab purification.
12. **Fluoride Precipitation (AmF₃)** – Low solubility for separation from other actinides.
13. **Solvent Extraction with D2EHPA / TBP / TTA** – Selectively separates americium from curium and lanthanides.
14. **Extraction with Macrocyclic Ligands (Crown Ethers)** – Laboratory-scale enrichment.
15. **Co-precipitation with Lanthanide Carriers** – Removes interfering fission products.
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### **D. Advanced Purification & Handling**
16. **Oxidation-State Adjustment (Am³⁺ ↔ Am⁴⁺)** – Facilitates selective separation.
17. **Electrodeposition on Platinum or Gold Electrodes** – Produces pure metallic or compound samples.
18. **Liquid–Liquid Extraction in Mixed Acid Systems** – Lab or small-scale production.
19. **Automated Radiochemical Separation Loops** – Industrial reactor byproduct handling.
20. **Electrorefining in Molten Salts (Experimental)** – Produces metallic americium for research purposes.
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✅ **Summary:**
* Americium is **almost entirely synthetic**, produced from **plutonium isotopes in nuclear reactors**.
* Industrial extraction involves **acid dissolution**, **solvent extraction**, and **ion exchange**.
* Precipitation of **hydroxides or oxalates** is used to purify Am³⁺.
* The main applications today are **smoke detectors, neutron sources, and research**.
* Only **milligram to gram quantities** are produced, and handling requires strict radiation safety.
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Next on the periodic table is **Curium (Cm, atomic number 96).**
Do you want me to continue with the **20 most common methods of extracting Curium**?
