Promethium
(information)
✅ Continuing with **Promethium (Pm)** — one of the rarest and only **radioactive lanthanides**, with no stable isotopes. Because of its scarcity and radioactivity, it’s used almost exclusively in **scientific, nuclear, and specialized power applications** rather than mass industry. --- # ☢️ Modern Promethium Uses by Industry (Option A Format) ### ๐ **1–4: Nuclear Batteries & Power Sources (~40–45%)** 1. **Promethium-147 Radioisotope Batteries** – Converts ฮฒ-decay energy to electricity for satellites and remote sensors. 2. **Atomic Power Sources for Spacecraft** – Compact long-life cells for deep-space instruments. 3. **Pacemaker & Medical Battery Research (Historic)** – Prototype low-current nuclear cells. 4. **Military Micro-Power Generators** – Specialized energy systems for sensors and beacons. --- ### ๐ก **5–8: Luminous & Radioluminescent Devices (~20–25%)** 5. **Luminous Paints (Legacy Use)** – Dials, watches, and signs; now mostly replaced by tritium. 6. **Self-Illuminating Indicators** – Emergency exit signs and instrumentation (cold-war era). 7. **Fluorescent Coatings for Research** – Studying radiation effects on phosphors. 8. **Display Technology Experiments** – Beta-driven light sources for low-power panels. --- ### ๐งช **9–12: Scientific & Analytical Applications (~15–20%)** 9. **Nuclear Spectroscopy Standards** – Used to calibrate beta-radiation instruments. 10. **Tracer Isotope Studies** – Tracks chemical and environmental diffusion. 11. **Beta-Emission Research** – Studying ionization and luminescence mechanisms. 12. **Radiation Detector Calibration Sources** – For dosimetry and shielding tests. --- ### ⚙️ **13–16: Materials & Industrial (~8–10%)** 13. **Thickness Gauging Devices** – Industrial control systems for films and foils. 14. **Power Source for Micro-Sensors** – Experimental MEMS devices. 15. **Portable X-Ray Units (Experimental)** – Compact radiological sources. 16. **Spacecraft Thermal Heaters (Conceptual)** – Beta-decay heat for small probes. --- ### ๐งญ **17–20: Education, Research & Isotope Production (~5%)** 17. **Isotope Research & Nuclear Chemistry** – Produced via neutron activation of neodymium or uranium fission. 18. **Physics Education Sources** – Safe sealed samples for academic demonstration. 19. **Decay-Chain Modeling Studies** – Understanding rare-earth fission products. 20. **Radioisotope Generation Experiments** – Development of alternative beta-emitters. --- ### ๐ Sector Share Summary | Sector Group | % of Global Promethium Use | | ------------------------------------ | -------------------------- | | Nuclear Batteries & Power Sources | ~40–45 % | | Luminous & Radioluminescent Devices | ~20–25 % | | Scientific & Analytical Applications | ~15–20 % | | Materials & Industrial | ~8–10 % | | Education & Isotope Research | ~5 % | --- ✅ **Next element:** **Samarium (Sm)** — another rare-earth metal with major roles in **magnets, nuclear control rods, catalysts, and infrared optics**. Say **“continue”** to move on to **Samarium** in the same structured format.Known Methods of Extraction
Perfect ๐ — next in **periodic table order** is **Promethium (Pm, atomic number 61).** Promethium is a **lanthanide (rare earth metal)** that is **extremely rare** and **radioactive**, with no stable isotopes. It occurs naturally in **trace amounts in uranium ores** or is **produced artificially** in nuclear reactors. Extraction involves **nuclear reactions, separation, and chemical purification**. Here are the **20 most common methods of extracting Promethium**: --- # **20 Most Common Methods of Extracting Promethium** ### **A. Extraction from Uranium or Thorium Ores (Trace Natural Occurrence)** 1. **Neutron Irradiation of Uranium-235 or Thorium-232** – Produces Pm isotopes. 2. **Beta Decay of Neodymium-147 (Nd-147 → Pm-147 + ฮฒ⁻)** – Source of Pm in reactor waste. 3. **Leaching of Uranium Ore with Acid (H₂SO₄ or HCl)** – Dissolves uranium and trace promethium. 4. **Ion Exchange Separation of Rare Earths** – Isolates promethium from lanthanides. 5. **Solvent Extraction Using Organophosphorus Extractants** – Separates Pm³⁺ from other REEs. 6. **Precipitation of Promethium as Hydroxide (Pm(OH)₃)** – Concentrates promethium from solution. --- ### **B. Extraction from Nuclear Reactor Byproducts** 7. **Irradiation of Neodymium Targets in Reactors** – Produces Pm-147. 8. **Dissolution of Irradiated Targets in Acid** – Releases promethium ions. 9. **Cation Exchange Purification** – Removes neodymium, cerium, and other REEs. 10. **Fractional Precipitation of Pm Compounds** – Isolates promethium as Pm(OH)₃ or PmF₃. 11. **Solvent Extraction Using Crown Ethers or Organophosphorus Reagents** – Further purifies Pm³⁺. 12. **Conversion to Pm Oxide (Pm₂O₃)** – Prepares for metallic reduction. --- ### **C. Reduction to Metallic Promethium** 13. **Calciothermic or Metallothermic Reduction of Pm₂O₃ → Pm** – Laboratory-scale metallic production. 14. **Electrolytic Reduction of Molten Pm Halides** – Experimental method for metallic Pm. 15. **Vacuum Distillation of Promethium Metal** – Purification for research purposes. 16. **Hydrogen Reduction of Pm Halides** – Laboratory-scale method. --- ### **D. Laboratory / Experimental Methods** 17. **Recovery from Spent Fuel Reprocessing Streams** – Pm isolated with other REEs. 18. **Precipitation from Mixed REE Solutions with Oxalates** – Small-scale laboratory purification. 19. **Chelating Agent Separation** – Research-scale selective extraction of Pm³⁺. 20. **Adsorption on Ion Exchange Resins** – Laboratory concentration of promethium. --- ✅ **Summary:** * **Main industrial sources:** Reactor-produced Pm (Pm-147) or trace natural uranium decay. * **Primary extraction steps:** Nuclear production → acid dissolution → ion exchange/solvent extraction → precipitation → reduction to metal. * **Metallic promethium:** Produced only in laboratory or research-scale operations. * **Byproduct sources:** Nuclear reactor byproducts, spent fuel. * **Laboratory/experimental:** Chelation, ion exchange, vacuum distillation, calciothermic reduction. --- Next in periodic order is \*\*Samarium (Sm, atomic number 62). Do you want me to continue with **20 extraction methods for Samarium**?
