Perfect 👍 — next in **periodic table order** is **Ruthenium (Ru, atomic number 44).**
Ruthenium is a **transition metal** that is **very rare** and does **not occur free** in nature. It is primarily obtained as a **byproduct of platinum and nickel mining/refining**, usually from **platinum group metal (PGM) ores**. Extraction involves **dissolution, precipitation, and reduction**.
Here are the **20 most common methods of extracting Ruthenium**:
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# **20 Most Common Methods of Extracting Ruthenium**
### **A. Extraction from Platinum-Group Ores**
1. **Dissolution of PGM Concentrates in Aqua Regia** – Dissolves most metals except some ruthenium oxides.
2. **Oxidative Fusion with Sodium Peroxide (Na₂O₂)** – Converts ruthenium to soluble ruthenate (RuO₄²⁻).
3. **Precipitation as Ruthenium Hydroxide (Ru(OH)₃)** – Intermediate purification step.
4. **Conversion to RuO₂ by Calcination** – Produces stable ruthenium dioxide.
5. **Dissolution of RuO₂ in NaOH** – Forms soluble sodium ruthenate (Na₂RuO₄).
6. **Fractional Precipitation from Mixed PGM Solutions** – Separates Ru from Pt, Pd, Ir, Rh.
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### **B. Reduction to Metallic Ruthenium**
7. **Hydrogen Reduction of RuO₂ → Ru** – Produces metallic ruthenium.
8. **Aluminothermic Reduction of RuO₂** – Lab or small-scale industrial method.
9. **Magnesiothermic Reduction of RuO₂** – Laboratory-scale metallic ruthenium.
10. **Electrolytic Deposition of Ruthenium from Aqueous Solutions** – High-purity metal deposition.
11. **Reduction of Ruthenium Chlorides (RuCl₃) with Hydrogen** – Laboratory preparation.
12. **Reduction with Carbon at High Temperatures** – Experimental metallothermic method.
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### **C. Recovery from Byproducts / Secondary Sources**
13. **Recovery from Nickel-Copper Sulfide Ore Refining Slags** – Minor amounts of ruthenium.
14. **Recovery from Platinum Refinery Residues** – Hydrometallurgical separation.
15. **Recovery from Recycled Hard Metals / Alloys** – Acid leaching + reduction.
16. **Recovery from PGM Catalysts (Spent Catalysts)** – Dissolution + selective precipitation.
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### **D. Laboratory / Experimental Methods**
17. **Plasma Reduction of Ruthenium Compounds** – High-purity experimental method.
18. **Solar-Thermal Reduction of RuO₂ or RuCl₃** – Experimental renewable energy method.
19. **Zone Refining of Metallic Ruthenium** – Produces ultra-high purity Ru.
20. **Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) of Ruthenium** – Produces thin films for electronics.
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✅ **Summary:**
* **Main industrial sources:** Platinum-group metal ores and refining residues.
* **Primary extraction steps:** Dissolution → ruthenate formation → precipitation → RuO₂ → reduction → metallic ruthenium.
* **Metallic ruthenium:** Produced via hydrogen, aluminothermic, magnesiothermic, or electrolytic reduction.
* **Byproduct sources:** Nickel-copper ores, platinum refining residues, spent catalysts.
* **Laboratory/experimental:** Plasma reduction, solar-thermal, zone refining, CVD for thin films.
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Next in periodic order is \*\*Rhodium (Rh, atomic number 45).
Do you want me to continue with **20 extraction methods for Rhodium**?
