Ruthenium
(information)
✅ Continuing with **Ruthenium (Ru)** — a **platinum-group metal** valued for its **chemical stability, hardness, and catalytic properties**. Though produced in small quantities globally, it plays a **critical role in electronics, catalysts, and high-performance alloys**. --- # ⚙️ Modern Ruthenium Uses by Industry (Option A Format) ### 🖥️ **1–4: Electronics & Data Storage (~35–40%)** 1. **Magnetic Read/Write Heads in Hard Drives (HDDs)** – Ru layers stabilize data recording. 2. **Electrical Contact Coatings** – Platinum-ruthenium alloys for long-life switches. 3. **Resistive RAM & Emerging Memory Devices** – Used in next-gen nonvolatile memory. 4. **Thin-Film Resistors** – Precision resistive coatings in microelectronics. --- ### ⚗️ **5–8: Catalysts & Chemical Processing (~30–35%)** 5. **Hydrogenation Catalysts** – Used in ammonia, methanol, and fine chemical synthesis. 6. **Fuel Cell Catalysts (PEM & Alkaline)** – Ru improves CO tolerance in anodes. 7. **Hydrogen Production & Storage Catalysts** – Transition metal dichalcogenide systems. 8. **Environmental Catalysts** – Emissions control and NOx reduction. --- ### 🔗 **9–12: Alloys & Hard Materials (~15–20%)** 9. **Platinum-Ruthenium Jewelry Alloys** – Increases hardness and scratch resistance. 10. **High-Strength Electrical Contacts** – Wear-resistant alloy coatings. 11. **Superalloys for Turbines & Aerospace** – Ni/Ru systems improve oxidation resistance. 12. **Wear-Resistant Coatings (PVD/CVD)** – Thin ruthenium carbide or oxide layers. --- ### 💎 **13–16: Chemical Compounds & Specialty Materials (~5–8%)** 13. **Ruthenium Red & Complex Dyes** – Biological staining agents. 14. **Photoredox Catalysts** – Organic synthesis and photocatalytic reactions. 15. **Electrochromic Materials** – Smart glass and display technologies. 16. **Anti-Cancer Drug Candidates (Experimental)** – Ruthenium-based chemotherapy compounds. --- ### 🛰️ **17–20: Research & Advanced Technologies (~3–5%)** 17. **Spintronics & Quantum Devices** – Ru-based layered magnetic structures. 18. **OLED & Photovoltaic Research** – Ruthenium complexes in solar cells. 19. **Chemical Vapor Deposition Precursors** – Semiconductor fabrication. 20. **Cold Emission Cathodes (Experimental)** – High-efficiency electron emitters. --- ### 📌 Sector Share Summary | Sector Group | % of Global Ruthenium Use | | -------------------------------- | ------------------------- | | Electronics & Data Storage | ~35–40% | | Catalysts & Chemical Processing | ~30–35% | | Alloys & Hard Materials | ~15–20% | | Chemical Compounds & Specialty | ~5–8% | | Research & Advanced Technologies | ~3–5% | --- ✅ **Next up is:** **Rhodium (Rh)** — another platinum-group metal, best known for its **role in catalytic converters**, but also crucial in **optics, coatings, and sensors**. Say **“continue”** and I'll move to Rhodium in the same structure.Known Methods of Extraction
Perfect 👍 — next in **periodic table order** is **Ruthenium (Ru, atomic number 44).** Ruthenium is a **transition metal** that is **very rare** and does **not occur free** in nature. It is primarily obtained as a **byproduct of platinum and nickel mining/refining**, usually from **platinum group metal (PGM) ores**. Extraction involves **dissolution, precipitation, and reduction**. Here are the **20 most common methods of extracting Ruthenium**: --- # **20 Most Common Methods of Extracting Ruthenium** ### **A. Extraction from Platinum-Group Ores** 1. **Dissolution of PGM Concentrates in Aqua Regia** – Dissolves most metals except some ruthenium oxides. 2. **Oxidative Fusion with Sodium Peroxide (Na₂O₂)** – Converts ruthenium to soluble ruthenate (RuO₄²⁻). 3. **Precipitation as Ruthenium Hydroxide (Ru(OH)₃)** – Intermediate purification step. 4. **Conversion to RuO₂ by Calcination** – Produces stable ruthenium dioxide. 5. **Dissolution of RuO₂ in NaOH** – Forms soluble sodium ruthenate (Na₂RuO₄). 6. **Fractional Precipitation from Mixed PGM Solutions** – Separates Ru from Pt, Pd, Ir, Rh. --- ### **B. Reduction to Metallic Ruthenium** 7. **Hydrogen Reduction of RuO₂ → Ru** – Produces metallic ruthenium. 8. **Aluminothermic Reduction of RuO₂** – Lab or small-scale industrial method. 9. **Magnesiothermic Reduction of RuO₂** – Laboratory-scale metallic ruthenium. 10. **Electrolytic Deposition of Ruthenium from Aqueous Solutions** – High-purity metal deposition. 11. **Reduction of Ruthenium Chlorides (RuCl₃) with Hydrogen** – Laboratory preparation. 12. **Reduction with Carbon at High Temperatures** – Experimental metallothermic method. --- ### **C. Recovery from Byproducts / Secondary Sources** 13. **Recovery from Nickel-Copper Sulfide Ore Refining Slags** – Minor amounts of ruthenium. 14. **Recovery from Platinum Refinery Residues** – Hydrometallurgical separation. 15. **Recovery from Recycled Hard Metals / Alloys** – Acid leaching + reduction. 16. **Recovery from PGM Catalysts (Spent Catalysts)** – Dissolution + selective precipitation. --- ### **D. Laboratory / Experimental Methods** 17. **Plasma Reduction of Ruthenium Compounds** – High-purity experimental method. 18. **Solar-Thermal Reduction of RuO₂ or RuCl₃** – Experimental renewable energy method. 19. **Zone Refining of Metallic Ruthenium** – Produces ultra-high purity Ru. 20. **Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) of Ruthenium** – Produces thin films for electronics. --- ✅ **Summary:** * **Main industrial sources:** Platinum-group metal ores and refining residues. * **Primary extraction steps:** Dissolution → ruthenate formation → precipitation → RuO₂ → reduction → metallic ruthenium. * **Metallic ruthenium:** Produced via hydrogen, aluminothermic, magnesiothermic, or electrolytic reduction. * **Byproduct sources:** Nickel-copper ores, platinum refining residues, spent catalysts. * **Laboratory/experimental:** Plasma reduction, solar-thermal, zone refining, CVD for thin films. --- Next in periodic order is \*\*Rhodium (Rh, atomic number 45). Do you want me to continue with **20 extraction methods for Rhodium**?
